Keywords

Parenting, Styles, Psycho-Education, Progress, Decline.

Introduction

The focus of educational guidance and counselling is to provide the needed help to clients with educational problems. In the school, setting for instance, there is strong need for students to improve their reading skills, study habits, writing skills, examination writing skills, know the right subject combination, remember as well as recall learned materials, learn to concentrate during lessons and develop good library skills. Esuabana (2018) affirms that it provides assistance to a troubled person to attain self-knowledge, self-understanding and self-direction.

Education is indisputably critical to the development of human society. It affords humans the opportunity to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and values with which to face life challenges (Taiwo, 2010). In view of the importance of education, societies design schools to facilitate the interaction of the learners with the teacher, the instructional materials as well as curricular contents, and with each other. Therefore, school attendance equips children with the basic tools needed to interact effectively with other people socially, academically, and emotionally. Education is a prerequisite for the personal development of learners as they are nurtured to become adults, who possess life skills, attitudes and knowledge for productive community membership, leadership, and parenting as well as guardianship roles.

Psycho-education is a form of education that is specifically offered to individuals who are suffering from any one of several distinct mental health conditions impairing their ability to lead their lives. The ideal aim of the psycho-educational approach is to give both the individuals who suffer from psychological conditions and their families a stronger base of knowledge on ways to cope and thrive in spite of the condition. Some of the conditions that may merit psycho-educational intervention include various anxiety disorders, personality disorders, psychotic illnesses, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and clinical depression.

Therefore, psycho-educational progress represents performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a student has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university. School systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple subject areas (that is, critical thinking) or include the acquisition of knowledge and understanding in a specific intellectual domain (that is, numeracy, writing, literacy, science, history). Psycho-educational progress is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their short or long-term educational goals. Hence, the students become professionals in their various sectors of our national life.

Unfortunately, there has been a growing level of psycho-educational decline noticeable among students. This has become a major concern amongst school counsellors, parents, caregivers and the government. The prevalence of psycho-educational decline among secondary school students is disheartening and could impede their efforts to smoothly navigate the turbulent adolescent period. As teenagers, deficiency in this attribute may lead to difficulty in decision-making when they are faced with challenges and uncertainties of life and could eventually make them distraught and upset in their social setup. This can result in anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, aggressive behaviors, rebellion against set down rules and regulations in schools. Other defiant behaviours attributable to psycho-educational decline include vandalism, gangsterism, drug abuse, bullying, restiveness, and other anti-social behaviors. Often, such behaviors are meant to impress their peers and covet their approvals.

Opinions vary as to why some students excel psycho-educationally while others appear to be underachievers. Many educators have consistently attempted to identify the major predictors of individual psycho-educational progress. Factors such as parents education, peer influence, teacher-student interaction, religious background and school environment just to mention a few, have been extensively explored as being responsible for psycho-education progress, especially among junior secondary school students. Other factors that have been researched on in the past include: poverty, violence, school bullying, socio-economic background and learning environment (Esuabana et al., 2021).

Another major factor that is assumed to be responsible for psycho-educational progress is parenting styles. The family is the first place of learning for the child. The quality of the family environment goes a long way in determining the eventual personality and performance of students. Parents have right from time been the main actors involved in raising children in every society. Hence the family is recognized as an important agent of socialization. It is in view of the above that (Adekeyi, 2012) posited that it is mainly through their efforts and abilities that children are socialized to become productive citizens. Therefore, wherever parents possess the resources and skills and apply them effectively and joyfully in raising their children, the society benefits. It is to this end, that the influence of parental background on the choice of carrier of students becomes both an imperative and an indispensable factor in the students’ wheel of progress. It is no gain saying that the primary responsibility of parents is the raising and protection of their children and passing on to them positive values and beliefs of the society. They also teach their children etiquette and social norms and ethos. It is also the responsibility of parents to provide their children with food, clothing, shelter, security as well as education.

The task of supporting students to achieve in their academic and other pursuits cannot be allowed into the hands of parents alone despite the significant role parent play or have to play in supporting their children, especially as these young ones are enrolled in schools. Maricutoiu and Sulea (2019) reported that student well-being is lower than the well-being of the general population, noting that forms of well-being seem to vary over time and might depend to self-regulatory mechanisms. Maricutoiu and Sulea therefore employed the Social Cognitive Theory to investigate the evolution of two well-being variables – student engagement and student burnout. The study (Maricutoiu & Sulea, 2019) used a longitudinal approach that analysed 635 sets of answers from 135 undergraduate students with self-reported questionnaires that assessed student engagement, student burnout, and general self-efficacy. Multilevel structural equation modelling was employed to analyse data. Results suggested that self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between the measurement and student engagement but has only a partial mediating effect in the case of student burnout. The result further indicated that increase in self-efficacy might compensate for the negative relation between measurement moment and burnout. The implication of this on the current study and undergraduates is that students need supportive engagement to develop competencies for high-level performance in any task they are exposed in order to remain relevant in work, business and personal living. In the study highlighted the following results: Studies about well-being achievement goals and achievement lack differentiation; engagement, perseverance, and optimism in school significantly predicted academic achievement.

Parenting styles play an important role in the personality development of the child. Healthy parenting styles can create an environment of love and discipline that favourably dispose the children to overcome the challenges of career path to follow. Esuabana (2018) posited that inappropriate parenting styles and unhealthy relationship at home often lead students to make poor choices. From mirroring what they see at home to starting out well behind their peers, children from troubled home backgrounds are at a disadvantage. They often display maladjustment tendencies like self-loathing and critical behaviour. Other negative effects that are characteristics of such students are low performance in school work both in their academics and social life, low self-esteem, depression, and violent behaviour, they often fail to thrive and usually have problems abiding with laws and constituted authority. When a healthy relationship with parents in family prevails, the student feels secured, well-adjusted and thinks himself accepted within his immediate environment and much later in life remains well adjusted and feels that society accepts him. Although family constitutes the child’s first and most enduring social environments, its influence on the development of the child’s psycho-educational progress and social competences have received relatively limited research attention until date. This paper, therefore, investigated the influence of parenting styles on psycho-educational progress of junior secondary school students in Central Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria.

Statement of the Problem

The prevalence of junior secondary school students’ psycho-educational backwardness in recent times in Central Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria is alarming. Psycho-educational retrogression manifests in different forms of behavioural disorders. Such disorders include learning and conduct disorders, depression, anxiety and delinquent acts, disobedience, lying, stealing, cheating, dishonesty, disrespect to elders, drug abuse, exams malpractice and falsification of school reports, to mention just few which as observed has resulted in the expulsion of some students and their career terminated and many school properties that would have enhanced learning destroyed by students. Students have been implicated in cases of assault with weapons, gangsterism, murder, rape, and even armed robbery. It takes place in small schools, large schools, single sex, co-educational schools, traditional and progressive schools, at home and in the community. This has become a burden for parents, government, schools, counsellors, and even non-governmental associations, which have tried unsuccessfully to curb its debilitating effects on the attainment of set goals, learning outcomes and development.

Attempts have been made to curb students’ psycho-educational decline and its attendant effect on school performance and achievement. Governments, NGOs, and other social organizations have at different times made efforts to contain unschooled-like behaviour among students. The government in Cross River State for example has put in place some strategies to curb ill behaviour in schools among students by deploying Peace Corps officials to secondary schools, but the outcome is yet to be fruitful (Stella, 2019).

The present study is another attempt to seek solution to the problem of psycho-educational decline among students by investigating the role which parenting styles play in the psycho-educational progress of junior secondary school students in Central Educational Zone, it is against this backdrop that this research was carried out. The question this research work seeks to answer is could parenting styles be responsible for the psycho-educational progress of junior secondary school students in Central Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria?

Literature Review

The Social Learning theory, postulated by Albert Bandura (1977) was considered in this study. The theory states that behaviour is largely acquired through imitation and observational learning. The theory explains that people learn from one another via observation, imitation, and modelling, this coded information serves as a guide for modelling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation. Bandura identified four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behaviour of someone else. He named them “The process of observational recovery.” The processes are.

1. Attention process, during which the learner perceives the model.

2. Retention process, where the learner remembers the model

3. Motor reproduction process, during which the learner translates what has been learnt into behaviour and

4. Motivational process, during which the learner puts what has been observed into action.

This theory is relevant to this present study in that children psychological behaviour such as depression, anxiety disorder, learning, and conduct disorders, are often modelled from the family through observations. Children tend to observe and model the behaviours of their parents or the behaviours of other siblings in their families. The growing child in the family observing the peculiar parenting and communicating styles of his or her family picks up such behaviour that would determine, eventually, his or her psycho-education. Psycho-educational malady will arise if the child has negative perception of parenting and communication styles at home. Attaway & Bry (2014) sought to examine parental rearing style on junior secondary student’s performance in school. Two hypotheses were formulate and tested at 0.05 level of significant, a sample of 102 students drawn from three categories of parents exposed to democratic, autocratic and permissive child rearing style. A 31- items validated questionnaire was administered to the respondents. The statistical analyses used were, Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation and multiple regression analysis. The findings revealed that authoritarian parents are strict, do not encourage interpersonal dialogue and exercise total control over their children’s behaviour according to a rigid set of standards. They demand ample obedience, and in the process do not show much warmth toward their children. Research studies by Carbonaro (2005) showed that child rearing practices have a significant effect on the child’s academic achievement and to what extent are children influenced by the way the parent raises them. In other previous researches, they continue to ask if we inherit personality (Higgins & Simpson, 2011).

Child rearing style is a major factor that affects personality development and not genes. The way a parent treats his/her child highly influences the drives the child develops which later on become responsible for his entire behaviour and personality trait. Umo (2013) carried out a study on indiscipline, parenting style and attitude to learning of students in secondary schools in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The study was designed to examine the factors responsible for indiscipline among secondary school students and the need for stakeholders in education to find the solution to the problems of indiscipline in schools. Indiscipline behaviour appears to be endemic in schools in recent times, being manifested by students at all levels particularly among secondary school students. The social problem of juvenile delinquency which is the main cause of indiscipline has eaten deep into the fabrics of our society like a cankerworm and there is need for something to be done to rid the society of this cankerworm. Ex-post facto research design was employed in the study. The study population was all Government Secondary Schools in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State which is about 5000, and 1000 students were sampled from this population using random sampling for the study. Questionnaires were the instrument used for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using population t-test and Pearson Moment Correlation analysis. Results of the analysis showed among others that indiscipline among secondary school students is greatly influenced by their attitude to learning, parental style, peer groups and other factors and to ensure effective education in our secondary schools, all the necessary hindrances must be addressed from the grass roots by ensuring that the students are well disciplined. Carried out a study on the influence of parenting styles on Junior Secondary school students' performance in Social Studies in Ilorin Emirate. The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of parenting styles on junior secondary school students' performance in social studies in llorin Emirate, Nigeria. The study used questionnaire and Proforma to collect data on parenting styles and students' performance. The data on junior school certificate and parenting styles were analyzed using frequency count, percentages and chi- square to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses raised in the study. The results showed that the parenting styles adopted had influence on the performance of the students. In addition, it was observed that students from authoritative parenting had better performance than students from other parenting styles (Vickers, 2017). It was recommended among others that parents should adopt democratic parenting style to enhance optimal performance of the students.

In addition, the school should create structures and strengthen the existing ones that would provide parent training intervention. Parenting styles and adolescents’ behaviour in Central Educational Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria was studied by (Mbua & Adigeb, 2015). Transitional period or stage of physical and psychological human development creates in the adolescents a feeling of tension between dependency on their parents and the need to break away. Tension and behaviour disorder, disagreement increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescents that may be in opposition to parents’ values. All these conflicts create in parents mixed feelings and makes parenting a complex task, with specific parenting practices which are less important in predicting child well-being. Base on this the researcher was interested in investigating parenting styles and its influences on adolescents’ behaviour. Null hypothesis was formulated to guide the study. Review of literature was carried on accordingly. A sample of 627 respondents was selected for the study. The selection was done through the stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Questionnaire was the main instrument for data collection. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was adopted. The hypothesis was tested under a 0.05 level of significance. The result of the analysis revealed that parenting styles significantly influence adolescents’ behaviour. Recommendations were made based on the result; that parents and adolescents should maintain cordial relationship and interaction to guide against behaviour misconduct and family conflict, leading to depression, anxiety, aggression and worries on the growing person (Inyang & Okon, 2020).

Research Question

The research question posed for this study is: To what extent does parenting styles influence psycho-educational progress among junior secondary education students in Central Education of Cross River State, Nigeria?

Hypothesis

The under stated hypothesis was formulated in pursuance of the objective of this study. There is no significant influence of parenting styles on psycho-educational progress of junior secondary school students in Central Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria.

Research Methods

The ex post facto design was adopted for this study. The study adopted this design because it investigated a cause-and-effect relationship that could possibly exist between the two main variables under investigation. The study area is Central Education Zone. Central Education Zone is one of the three education zones in Cross River State. It is made up of 6 Local Government Areas, namely; Boki, Ikom, Etung, Obubra, Yakurr and Abi.

The population of this study comprises of 4842 junior secondary school students in public secondary schools in Central Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. A further description of the population shows that there are 2626 males and 2216 are female students. This population is made up of students who are at the adolescent stage with ages ranging between 13 to 18 years. They are matured enough to take certain decisions on their own without seeking the opinion of others (Chen & Lan, 2006).

The sample size for this study was made up of 18.2% of the entire population for selected through the use of stratified and simple random techniques. This gave a sample of 883 students of which 477 were male students while 406 were female students. The summary of study sample is presented in (Table 1).

The instrument for data collection comprised a set of questionnaire designed by the researcher. Two kinds of validity were established for the instrument of this study. These are content and face validity. The reliability of the instrument was established with the use of Cronbach Alpha. The reliability index of the instrument was found to be 0.94.

Results

To answer the research question, the mean was computed from the frequency distribution of the responses. The result of the computation is shown in (Table 2).

The data in Table 2 revealed the respondents’ opinion on psycho-educational progress. The result showed that all the eight items in this cluster had mean values of 2.76, 2.51, 2.83, 2.01, 3.02, 2.77, 2.58 and 3.17 respectively. The mean values are all above the cut of point of 2.50 except item 4 which has 2.01. The indication is that in the opinion of the respondents, parenting styles affect children psycho-educational progress differently in Central Education Zone of Cross Rive State.

To test the hypothesis, the data collected were analyzed using One-way Analysis of Variance. The hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance and 2 and 880 degrees of freedom. The hypothesis stipulated that there is no significant influence of parenting styles on students’ psycho-educational progress. The independent variable is parenting styles measured categorically with three dimensions which are democratic, autocratic and permission styles while the dependent variable is psycho-educational progress.

The results of the data analysis as presented in (Table 3) showed that the calculated F-value of 1096.520 was higher than the critical F-value of 3.02 at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and 880 degrees of freedom. With this result, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant influence of parenting styles on psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students is rejected. This implies that parenting styles has a significant influence on psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students in Central education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. A further direction of the influence of parenting styles on students’ psycho-educational progress was employed using Fishers’ Protected-t multiple comparison analysis. The result of the Protected-t analysis is presented in (Table 4).

Table 3 Summary of One-Way Analysis of Variance of the Influence of Parenting Styles on Psycho-Educational Progress Among Junior Secondary School Students N= 883
Parenting styles	N		SD
Democratic	357	19.75	0.98
Autocratic	273	18.76	1.66
Permissive	253	14.87	1.24
Total	883	18.04	2.43
Psycho-educational Progress	Source of Varience	df	Ms	F-cal	p-Value
Between groups	3720.77	2	1860.39	1096.52	0
Within groups	1493.034	880	1.697
Total	5213.807	882

The results of the data analysis as presented in Table 3 showed that the calculated F-value of 1096.520 was higher than the critical F-value of 3.02 at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and 880 degrees of freedom. With this result, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant influence of parenting styles on psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students is rejected. This implies that parenting styles has a significant influence on psychoeducational progress among junior secondary school students in Central education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria. A further direction of the influence of parenting styles on students’ psychoeducational progress was employed using Fishers’ Protected-t multiple comparison analysis. The result of the Protected-t analysis is presented in (Table 4).

The results of the post hoc test in (Table 3) showed that students whose parenting style is democratic are significantly different from those whose parenting style is autocratic in terms of psycho-educational progress. Also, students whose parenting style is autocratic are significantly different from those whose parenting style is permissive in terms of psycho-educational progress. Similarly, a student whose parenting style is democratic is significantly different from those whose parenting style is permissive in terms of psycho-educational progress.

Discussion of Findings

The hypothesis which stated that there is no significant influence of parenting styles on psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students was rejected. This implies that there is a significant influence of parenting style on psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students in Central Education Zone of Cross River State. This could be because there are different styles of parenting and each varies according to the degree of warmth and control exercised and is useful in understanding its contribution to the emotional well-being of children. Each parenting style creates a different emotional climate thereby contributing to the development of emotional adjustment. During the socialization process parents provide the first context for recognition and communication of affective messages. These affective messages are communicated to children with the expectation that they will be able to interpret and respond to them. Parents' emotional expressiveness and the emotional climate that they create through their parenting styles provide guidelines to children regarding the use of emotion in regular everyday social interactions. The expressiveness of parents takes emotional learning beyond the acquisition of social skills, such as coding and decoding, to the use of rules about emotion in different contexts

The result of the study is in line with that conducted a study on the relationship between parenting style and children’s adjustment. They examined the relationship between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and socio-emotional adjustment in elementary school children as reported from the parents’ perspective. Results indicated that authoritative parenting was associated negatively with parents and teacher-rated maladaptive behaviour, and positively with indicators of unhealthy emotional adjustment. Correlations between authoritarian parenting and adjustment were either small or non-significant. Regression analysis indicated that authoritative parenting was more predictive of children maladaptation (22%). The effects of parenting style on adjustment were not moderated by demographic variables, such as the child’s gender, grade level, ethnicity, and family income.

Similarly, the study is in line with that of carried out a study on parenting styles and self-concept on emotional adjustment of Nigerian secondary school students in Ikpoba Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria. The result showed that students who are from democratic homes are more emotionally adjusted than those who are from authoritative and permissive parents. The findings collaborate with that of that carried out a study on parenting style and students’ emotional adjustment in secondary schools in Makurdi Metropolis of Benue State, Nigeria. A survey research design was adopted for the study. The result obtained showed a significant relationship between students parenting style and emotional adjustment in schools in the study area.

The study of (Baldwin et al., 2017) is in harmony with the present study. They found a significant relationship between the ways parents bring up their children and academic achievement. Authoritative parents are characterised by effectiveness and are supportive of their children, encourage their children to do well academically and explain the need for education in order to become a successful adult. Thus, the child under the authoritative style of parenting performs well in school-related activities. The authoritative parents also recognize when their child is improving or learning new material and show satisfaction when it is done through hard work. Moreover, these parents are not angered by their children’s mistakes; instead they want the children to know that mistakes are part of the learning experience.

Implications for Counseling

The following are implication of this study to the guidance and counseling profession. They include:

1. Promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development to all students: Guidance and counseling is oriented towards wholistic development of the individual. Counseling is based on the total development of mental, vocational, emotional, social and personal behaviours of the students.

2. Acquisition of competencies for self-reliance: Counselling is intended to help uncover, develop and utilize human talents and capacities through psychological testing to the benefit of students and community

3. Shared responsibility for the common good of society: The counseling implication is to encourage students at all levels in acquiring, developing and inculcating the proper value-orientation for their survival and the society.

4. Family stability: Counselling will play a rehabilitative role by helping to build families which are either disintegrated or about to hit the rock

5. Parenting children with deviant behaviours: Counselling ensures that a preventive, remedial as well as rehabilitative measures are taken to maintain sanity in the family

Conclusion

Based on the finding of the study, it was concluded that parenting style significantly influences psycho-educational progress among junior secondary school students. Based on the conclusion of the study, it was recommended that:

1. Parents should stick together in order to develop a good home social relationship in their children

2. Parents should be democratic in the relationship in order not to create an atmosphere that will enhance psycho-educational progress among their children.

3. Parents should avoid too stern and lax approaches in dealing with their children at home as this will promote their psycho-educational progress in school and the nation.

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Received: 07-Sep-2022, Manuscript No.AELJ-22-12525; Editor assigned: 8-Sep-2022, PreQC No. AELJ-22-12525(PQ); Reviewed: 21-Sep-2022, QC No.AELJ-22-12525 ; Revised: 24-Sep-2022, Manuscript No. AELJ-22-12525(R); Published: 28-Sep-2022